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According to Wendy Doniger, the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic Indra.[107] Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,[108] 6.45.17,[109][110] and 8.93.3.[111]) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.[112][113] In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.[114]The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion,[115] and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian religion.[116] The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha-related artwork, but the presence of Shivas trident and phallic symbolism in this art suggests it was likely Shiva.[117] Numismatics research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient Kushan Empire that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva.[118] The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by the start of the Kushan Empire.[119][120]The texts and artwork of Jainism show Indra as a dancer, although not identical but generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras.[121]For example, in the Jain caves at Ellora, extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of Tirthankaras in a manner similar to Shiva Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva.[120][121]Later literatureEditRudras evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400–200 BC), according to Gavin Flood.[71][122] Prior to it, the Upanishadic literature is monistic, and the Shvetashvatara text presents the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva.[71] Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and liberator of souls from the birth-rebirth cycle. The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period.[71] Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in Patanjalis Mahābhāṣya(2nd-century BC) and in the Mahabharata.[123] Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the Shvetashvatara Upanishad presents pluralism, pantheism, or henotheism, rather than being a text just on Shiva theism.[124][125][126]Self-realization and Shaiva UpanishadsHe who sees himself in all beings,And all beings in him,attains the highest Brahman,not by any other means.—Kaivalya Upanishad 10 [127][128]The Shaiva Upanishads are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century.[129] These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality Brahman and the Atman (soul, self),[130] and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva.[131]A few texts such as Atharvashiras Upanishad mention Rudra, and assert all gods are Rudra, everyone and everything is Rudra, and Rudra is the principle found in all things, their highest goal, the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible.[130] The Kaivalya Upanishad similarly, states Paul Deussen – a German Indologist and professor of Philosophy, describes the self-realized man as who feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all, who feels identity of his and everyones consciousness with Shiva (highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart.[127][132

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